Research
Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish يثبت novel رواية facts, solve new or existing موجودة problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method. The primary purpose for basic اساسي research (as oppose عارض to applied تطبيقي research) is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement تقدم of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the advancement تقدم
Scientific research relies يعتمد على on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity فضول . This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties صفات مميزة of the world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable متصدق... فاعل خير organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.
Artistic فني research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable قابل للمناقشة body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth.
Historical تاريخي research is embodied شمل in the historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence دليل to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.
Etymology بسط و علل, تعليل للفظ أو إتيمولوجيا, دراسة تعنى باصل الكل
Definitions تعريف, تحديد, إيضاح, الوضوحية في الشيء, التحديد, حد
Research has been defined in a number of different ways. the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge."
Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states - "Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose يظهر a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as "a studious مجد..مدروس inquiry استعلام.. تحقق or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation ترجمة of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws".
Steps in conducting research طرق البحث المباشر
The major steps in conducting research are: Identification of research problem
- Literature review
- Specifying the purpose of research
- Data collection
- Analyzing and interpreting the data
- Reporting and evaluating research
The steps generally represent the overall process, however they should be viewed as an ever-changing process rather than a fixed set of steps. Most researches begin with a general statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study. The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. The purpose of the research identifies a specific hypothesis. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets يترجم the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as Empirical researchبحث تجريبي. The results of the data analysis in confirming or failing to reject the Null hypothesis
فرضية العدم ، أو H0، في علم الإحصاء الفرضية القائلة بأن الفرق الملاحظ بين مجموعتي التجربة والشاهد في العينة ناتج عن الصدفة، وغير موجود في الجمهرة. وتعتبر صحيحة حتى يتم إثبات بطلانها بواسطة الاختبارات الإحصائية are then reported and evaluated. At the end the researcher may discuss avenues طرق مشجرة for further research.
فرضية العدم ، أو H0، في علم الإحصاء الفرضية القائلة بأن الفرق الملاحظ بين مجموعتي التجربة والشاهد في العينة ناتج عن الصدفة، وغير موجود في الجمهرة. وتعتبر صحيحة حتى يتم إثبات بطلانها بواسطة الاختبارات الإحصائية are then reported and evaluated. At the end the researcher may discuss avenues طرق مشجرة for further research.
Scientific research
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:
1. Observations and Formation of the topic: Consists of the subject area of one's interest and following that subject area to conduct subject related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast وسبع amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.
2. Hypothesisأ. افتراض, فرضية, افتراض على سبيل الجدل : A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables.
4. Operational ميداني definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.
5. Gathering جمع المعلومات of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information from and/or about these samples by using specific research instruments. The instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable.
6. Analysis التحليل of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data in order to draw conclusions about it.
7. Data Interpretation تفسير : This can be represented through tables, figures and pictures, and then described in words.
A common misconception فكرة خاطئة is that a hypothesis will be proven. Generally a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent متناقض with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected. However, if the outcome is consistent متناسق with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative البديل hypotheses may also be consistent متلائم with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually أخيرا , becoming widely thought of as true. A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy الدقة of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified أكد صحة الشئ . As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent مدى that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant يحل محله it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which state no relationship or difference between the independent مستقل or dependent variables. A null hypothesis uses a sample of all possible people to make a conclusion استنتاج about the population.
Historical method
The historical method comprises تشمل the techniques and guidelines by which historians المؤرخ use historical sources and other evidence شهادة to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticismانتقاده, internal criticism, and synthesis طريقة الجمع بين الزيادة والنقصان. This includes lower criticism and sensual حسي criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are usually part of most formal historical research: Identification of origin date
- Evidence شهادة of localization محلي
- Recognition of authorship اصل الكتاب ..او مؤلفه
- Analysis of data
- Identification of integrityنزاهة...سلامة
- Attributionنسبة of credibilityمصداقية
Research methods
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge, or deepenتعمق understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscureمبهم....غير معروف.):
- Exploratoryتمهيدي...استكشافي research, which structures and identifies new problems
- Constructiveاستدلالي....استنتاجي research, which develops solutions to a problem
- Empiricalتجريبي research, which tests the feasibilityاحتمال of a solution using empirical evidence
Research can also fall into two distinct types:
Original findings
Summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research
In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research:
Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that governاحتوى such behavior. Asking a broad question and collecting word-type data that is analyzed searching for themes. This type of research looks to describe a population without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more restrictiveمقيد in testing hypotheses because it is extremely expensive and time consumingيستغرق وقتا طويلا, and typically limited to a single set of research subjects. Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.
Quantitative research
هو أحد أنواع البحث العلمي الرئيسية، ويهدف إلى جمع معلومات بطريقة ممثلة لعينة البحث بحيث يمكن حساب النتائج إحصائيا وتعميمها.التعميم عادة يستخدم لدعم أو نقد الفرضيات.
هو أحد أنواع البحث العلمي الرئيسية، ويهدف إلى جمع معلومات بطريقة ممثلة لعينة البحث بحيث يمكن حساب النتائج إحصائيا وتعميمها.التعميم عادة يستخدم لدعم أو نقد الفرضيات.
Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative propertiesخاصية and phenomenaظاهرة and their relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting numericalعددي data to analyze utilizingاستخدام statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, corelational, and survey (or descriptive). Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associativeترابطي or causal relationships between variables.
The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined قدر محتوم response categories فئة . They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probabilityاحتمالية sampling to select participantsالمشاركين.
Research is often conducted using the hourglassالساعة الرملية model structure of research. The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results.
Publishing
Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for academic scholarsعلامة to peer reviewمراجعة الزملاءthe work and make it available for a wider audience. The system varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviationالاختصار for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine.
Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinaryمتعدد الاختصاصات, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields; from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open accessمدخل. There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.
Research funding
Most funding for scientific research comes from three major sources: Corporate research and development departments; Private Foundations, for example, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and government research councils such as the National Institutes of Health in the USA[12] and the Medical Research Council in the UK. These are managed primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research, but also as a source of merit.Original research
Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified).Different forms
Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject, e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there are typically some new (for example) mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of the researcher.The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review Graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation.
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